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Language has always captivated me since childhood. The marvel of communicating through words, both spoken and unspoken, struck me as nothing short of magical. A question that often intrigued me was the origin of language. How did our early ancestors, be they Neanderthals or another race, develop this intricate system of shared conventions and meanings?

This topic, rich in history and analysis, spans centuries and countless volumes. While delving into its depths is a vast undertaking beyond the scope of this brief post, let’s acknowledge the remarkable fact that we’ve evolved complex communicative codes enabling us to interact meaningfully.

Another fascinating aspect of language is our ability to transcend the linguistic boundaries of our birth. Many of us are bilingual, trilingual, or even multilingual. In my years as an EFL teacher, I’ve witnessed the delight and challenge children experience in learning a new language.

This is no small feat; it’s a testament to the incredible capability of the human mind. Learning a new language opens a gateway to its underlying culture, offering insights into how others think and behave. This is a significant reason why bilingualism or multilingualism often leads to greater tolerance, coexistence, and acculturation, though this is not always the case.

The aim of this post is to shed light on the benefits of bilingualism. I draw from Mia Nacamulli’s enlightening TED Talk, “The Benefits of a Bilingual Brain”, summarizing key advantages and incorporating some into the accompanying visual. This can be a valuable resource for your students or children, helping them understand the myriad benefits of embracing a new language.

In addition to the insights from Mia Nacamulli’s TED Talk on the cognitive and cultural advantages of bilingualism, I delved deeper into the academic world to bring you a more comprehensive understanding of this fascinating topic. Bilingualism isn’t just about speaking two languages; it’s a complex and enriching experience that influences various aspects of our cognitive and social lives.

Related: 17 Best TED Ed Talks on Language Learning

To give you a broader perspective, I’ve explored several research papers that shed light on the multifaceted impacts of being bilingual. These studies offer intriguing findings – from enhanced executive control to potential protective effects against cognitive decline. But, as with any area of research, there are diverse viewpoints and findings, including some that challenge the conventional narrative of bilingualism’s benefits.

At the bottom of this post, you’ll find a selection of these research papers, offering you a gateway to explore the intriguing world of bilingualism further. Whether you’re a language enthusiast, a teacher, or just curious about the effects of bilingualism, these studies provide valuable insights into the ongoing conversation about the advantages and complexities of speaking more than one language.

The Benefits of Being Bilingual

According to Mia Nacamulli’ s TED Talk on Bilingual Brain, it’s clear that speaking more than one language offers a range of benefits. Here’s a summary of these advantages:

1. Cognitive Flexibility: Bilinguals can switch between languages, enhancing their problem-solving skills and adaptability.
2. Improved Executive Function: Bilingualism strengthens the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is crucial for executive functions like planning, decision-making, and task-switching.
3. Enhanced Brain Health: Bilingual individuals often show higher density of grey matter in their brains. This aspect relates to the brain’s neurons and synapses, indicating a more robust neural network.
4. Delayed Onset of Neurodegenerative Diseases: Regular use of multiple languages can delay the onset of diseases like Alzheimer’s and dementia by up to five years.
5. Balanced Emotional Perspective: Those who learn a second language as adults may approach problems more rationally in their second language, exhibiting less emotional bias.
6. Increased Brain Plasticity in Children: Kids learning languages can use both hemispheres of the brain for language acquisition, leading to a more holistic understanding of language’s social and emotional contexts.
7. Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity: Knowing multiple languages often correlates with a deeper understanding and appreciation of different cultures.
8. Practical Advantages: Bilingualism offers everyday benefits like easier travel and consuming media without subtitles.
9. Linguistic and Conceptual Duality: Bilinguals, especially coordinate bilinguals, develop separate conceptual frameworks for each language, enriching their cognitive and cultural perspectives.
10. Resilience in Language Processing: While bilinguals might initially have slower reaction times in language tests, the mental effort required to switch between languages strengthens their brain’s language processing abilities.

Besides Mia’ contribution, I scoured the research literature on bilingualism and summarized for you other findings. The following is a concise summary of key findings from various research studies, highlighting the multifaceted benefits that bilingualism can bring to cognitive functions and overall brain health.

1. Enhanced Executive Control: Bilingual individuals often perform better in tasks requiring executive control, such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility (Bialystok, 2011).
2. Improved Coordination of Executive Functions: Bilingual children show better accuracy in complex tasks that involve coordinating executive control components, particularly under challenging conditions (Bialystok, 2011).
3. Influences on Cognitive and Language Functioning: Bilingualism impacts language acquisition, nonverbal cognitive processing, and the brain networks involved in language processing and executive control (Bialystok et al., 2009).
4. Superior Inhibitory Control in Auditory Comprehension: Bilinguals demonstrate a greater ability to suppress irrelevant information during auditory comprehension, indicating enhanced cognitive control (Blumenfeld & Marian, 2011).
5. Aids in Conflict Resolution and Attentional Networks: Bilingualism enhances attentional networks, leading to faster and more efficient conflict resolution abilities and improved alerting and executive control (Costa, Hernández, Sebastián-Gallés, 2008).
6. Protective Effect Against Cognitive Decline and Dementia: Bilingualism has a moderate protective effect on the age of onset of Alzheimer’s disease symptoms and contributes to cognitive reserve (Anderson, Hawrylewicz, Grundy, 2020).
7. Positive Impact on Cognitive Aging: Bilinguals show better performance in later-life cognition, including general intelligence and reading, even for those who acquired a second language in adulthood (Bak, Nissan, Allerhand, Deary, 2014).

Final thoughts

It’s fascinating to see how something as integral as language can have such a profound impact on our brain’s structure and function. As a former teacher and current educational researcher, these insights can be particularly valuable for understanding the benefits of promoting bilingual education. Encouraging language learning from a young age not only fosters cultural openness but also contributes significantly to cognitive development and long-term brain health.

Further readings

As we dive deeper into the fascinating world of bilingualism, let’s turn our attention to the scientific community’s contributions. The following section presents a curated selection of research studies that illuminate the diverse benefits and intriguing complexities of bilingualism. These papers provide a rich tapestry of evidence and perspectives, offering us a more rounded understanding of how speaking multiple languages can shape our minds and lives.

Bialystok, E. (2011) – “Reshaping the Mind: The Benefits of Bilingualism”

• This study highlights that bilingual individuals often excel in tasks requiring executive control compared to monolinguals. It reviews evidence of how bilingualism influences cognitive organization and executive control structures. Additionally, the paper presents intriguing findings on bilingualism’s protective effect against Alzheimer’s disease, offering hypotheses for this protection.

Bialystok, E. (2011) – “Coordination of Executive Functions in Monolingual and Bilingual Children”

• This research examines how bilingual and monolingual 8-year-olds perform in a complex classification task involving both visual and auditory stimuli. The task assesses executive control components like working memory, inhibition, and shifting. Findings show that bilingual children, especially in visual tasks, maintain better accuracy under more challenging dual-task conditions, suggesting enhanced coordination of executive functions.

Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I.M., Green, D.W., Gollan, T.H. (2009) – “Bilingual Minds”

• This comprehensive paper discusses the broad impact of bilingualism on language and cognitive functioning. It covers four areas: differences in language acquisition and processing between monolinguals and bilinguals, bilingualism’s influence on nonverbal cognitive processing, the brain networks involved in bilingual language processing and their role in executive control, and the implications of bilingualism in clinical assessments and interventions. The paper also touches on public policy implications related to multilingual education and healthcare for bilingual individuals.

Blumenfeld, H.K., Marian, V. (2011) – “Bilingualism Influences Inhibitory Control in Auditory Comprehension”

• This study investigates how bilinguals demonstrate superior ability to suppress irrelevant information during auditory comprehension. Using eye-tracking, the research compares monolinguals and bilinguals listening to words in English and identifies them among pictures. While both groups showed similar competition in language processing, bilinguals differed in their use of inhibitory control, as evidenced by their performance on nonlinguistic tasks like the Stroop test. This suggests that bilingualism shapes cognitive control mechanisms through linguistic experience.

Costa, A., Hernández, M., Sebastián-Gallés. (2008) – “Bilingualism Aids Conflict Resolution”

• This research explores how bilinguals’ need to control two languages might enhance their attentional networks. Comparing bilinguals and monolinguals using the Attentional Network Task (ANT), the study finds that bilinguals are faster and more efficient, particularly in the alerting and executive control networks. Bilinguals showed improved conflict resolution abilities and reduced switching costs, indicating that bilingualism positively influences the development of efficient attentional mechanisms.

Anderson, J.A.E., Hawrylewicz, K., Grundy, J.G. (2020) – “Does Bilingualism Protect Against Dementia?”

• This meta-analysis examines the role of bilingualism in protecting against cognitive decline and dementia. The study differentiates between the incidence rates of dementia and the age of symptom onset. The results indicate a moderate protective effect of bilingualism on the age of onset of Alzheimer’s disease symptoms and a weaker effect on preventing the disease incidence. The findings also dismiss confounding factors like socioeconomic status, education, or publication bias, contributing to the understanding of bilingualism’s role in cognitive reserve.

Bak, T.H., Nissan, J.J., Allerhand, M.M., Deary, I.J. (2014) – “Does Bilingualism Influence Cognitive Aging?”

• This study assesses the impact of bilingualism on cognitive aging, controlling for childhood intelligence. It tracks participants first tested in 1947 and retested in 2008–2010. Findings show that bilinguals performed better than predicted from their baseline cognitive abilities, particularly in general intelligence and reading. The research suggests that bilingualism has a positive effect on cognition in later life, including for those who acquired a second language in adulthood.

de Bruin, A., Treccani, B., Della Sala, S. (2015) – “Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias?”

• This study challenges the widely accepted notion of a cognitive advantage in bilinguals over monolinguals in executive-control tasks. Investigating a potential publication bias, the researchers analyzed conference abstracts from 1999 to 2012 related to bilingualism and executive control. They tracked which studies were eventually published and found that those fully supporting the bilingual advantage theory were most likely to be published, followed by studies with mixed results. In contrast, studies that contradicted the bilingual advantage were least likely to be published. This trend was observed despite no significant differences in sample size, tests used, or statistical power among the studies. Additionally, a funnel-plot asymmetry test indicated the presence of a publication bias. This research suggests that the perceived cognitive benefits of bilingualism might be influenced by the selective publication of positive results, highlighting the need for a more balanced and comprehensive examination of bilingualism’s impact on cognition.

References

• Anderson, J.A.E., Hawrylewicz, K. & Grundy, J.G. (2020). Does bilingualism protect against dementia? A meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev, 27, 952–965. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01736-5
• Bak, T.H. , Nissan, J.J., Allerhand, M.M. & Deary, I.J. (2014). Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging?. Annals of Neurology, 75 (6), 959-963. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24158
• Bialystock, E. (2011). Reshaping the Mind: The Benefits of Bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(4), 229–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025406
• Bialystock, E. (2011). Reshaping the mind: The benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(4), 229–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025406
• Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I.M., Green, D.W. & Gollan, T.H. (2009). Bilingual minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 10, 89-129. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1529100610387084
• Blumenfeld, H.K. & Marian, V. (20110. Bilingualism influences inhibitory control in auditory comprehension. Cognition, 118, 245-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.10.012
• Costa, A., Hernández, M. & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2008). Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106, 59-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.12.013
• de Bruin, A., Treccani, B., & Della Sala, S. (2015). Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological Science, 26(1), 99-107.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614557866

The post Research-based Benefits of Being Bilingual appeared first on Educators Technology.

We are living in a digital saturated world where attention is a rare asset. In our classes, keeping students engaged and attentive is a challenge every teacher faces on a daily basis.It is becoming harder and harder to keep students focused and this is because of the new normal created by the new technologies. Students spend a lot of time interacting with social media and as we know content in these platform is short and engaging.

If your lesson is not as engaging it can not grab their attention. This is why a lot of students feel bored in class. Boredom, as Vogel-Walcutt et al. (2012) stated, “occurs when an individual experiences both the (objective) neurological state of low arousal and the (subjective) psychological state of dissatisfaction, frustration, or disinterest in response to the low arousal” (p. 102). This state of boredom is not just an occasional inconvenience; it is a significant barrier to effective learning.

Research has consistently highlighted the detrimental effects of boredom on student learning. For instance, Wallace, Vodanovich, and Restino (2003) discussed how boredom correlates with attention deficit and memory lapses, signaling a deeper issue than mere disinterest. Furthermore, Pekrun et al. (2010) linked boredom to attentional problems in class, while Maroldo (1986) noted its association with lower GPAs and a decreased motivation to learn. This paints a clear picture: boredom is a multifaceted issue impacting various aspects of a student’s academic journey.

Recognizing the gravity of this challenge, educators have sought effective strategies to combat classroom boredom. Rosegard & Olson (2013) suggest that one effective approach is to increase arousal through external stimuli such as “a hook, trigger, attention getter/grabber, or anticipatory set” (p. 2). These methods are not mere distractions but are thoughtfully designed to ignite students’ curiosity and pull them into the heart of the learning experience. The goal is to transform passive listeners into active participants, engaged and intrigued by the material presented.

The purpose of this post is to share with you a wide range of practical strategies (attention getters or attention grabbers) to help keep your students focused and engaged. But before we explore these strategies, let us first a key concept which is at the core of students attention: Interest.

Situational Vs Personal/Individual Interest

At the core of any attention grabbing task in class lies the concept of interest. Interest is the catalyst that transforms mundane topics into captivating subjects. But what exactly is interest, and how does it function in an educational setting?

Interest, as Chen et al. () define it, is “a positive psychological state that is based on or emerges from person-activity interaction” (p. 384). Krapp, Hidi, and Renninger (1992) further categorize interest into two main categories: personal or individual interest and situational interest.

Situational interest, according to Chen et al. (), is ” the appealing effect of an activity or learning task on an individual, rather than the individual’s personal preference for the activity” (p. 384). Situational interest is interactional in nature. It is generated through the learner’s interaction with the learning task at hand and as, Chen et al state, results from “students recognition of the appeaking features associated with a specific learning task” (p. 384).

Personal/individual interest, according to the same authors, is “a person’s preference for one activity over others. It is developed over time through a person’s constant and consistent interaction with the activity” (p. 384).

But why does situational interest matter?

Situational interest plays a crucial role in the classroom as it acts as an immediate, emotional response that sparks curiosity or excitement in students about a specific topic or activity. This kind of interest is akin to a momentary flame that catches students’ attention, enhancing their focus and participation in the learning process (Rosegard & Olson, 2013).

Unlike individual interest, which develops slowly and is more enduring, situational interest is a powerful and immediate tool for educators to captivate students’ attention, thereby improving engagement and participation in educational activities (Hidi et al., 2004; Deci, 1992; Renninger et al., 1992).

Classroom Attention Getters

Here are some practical attention grabbers/ attention getters to use in your class to keep students engaged and focused:

1. Use Humour

Humour is a powerful tool in the classroom, engaging students and creating a positive learning environment (for a review of importance of humour in teaching see Martin, 2007; Rosegard & Olson, 2013; Wanzer et al., 2010; Ziv, 1988). By incorporating jokes, funny anecdotes, or light-hearted content, teachers can capture students’ attention and make lessons more memorable. For instance, starting a history lesson with a humorous story about a historical figure can pique students’ curiosity and make the topic more relatable.

2. Use of Multimedia

Multimedia integrates various forms of media, like videos, animations, and interactive content, to enrich the learning experience. This approach appeals to different learning styles and keeps students engaged (Mayer, 2003). For example, in a science class, an animated video explaining the solar system can make the concept more tangible and visually stimulating compared to traditional textbook descriptions.

3. Offer Choices

Offering choices in learning activities empowers students and fosters engagement. When students have a say in their learning process, they feel more invested. An example could be allowing students to choose between creating a poster, writing an essay, or making a presentation for a project. This autonomy caters to different strengths and interests.

4. Change Voice Pitch

Altering voice pitch and tone can be an effective way to maintain student attention. A varied vocal delivery prevents monotony and keeps students alert. For instance, a teacher might use a lower pitch to emphasize important points and a higher, enthusiastic tone for storytelling or explanations, helping to highlight key information and maintain engagement.

5. Use Technology

Incorporating technology, such as educational apps, interactive whiteboards, or online quizzes, can enhance learning and engagement. It caters to the digital natives in the classroom. For example, using a quiz app (e.g., Quizlet, Kahoot, Quizalize, etc) for a quick classroom competition allows for immediate feedback and adds a fun, interactive element to the lesson.

6. Use Music

Music can set the mood, energize the classroom, and aid in learning. It can be used to introduce a new topic, signal transitions, or support memory. For example, playing a relevant song at the beginning of a literature class discussing that era’s culture can immediately engage students and set the context for the lesson.

7. Personalized Intervention

Personalized intervention involves tailoring teaching methods and content to meet individual student needs. This approach recognizes that each student learns differently. A teacher might use this strategy by offering different reading materials at varying difficulty levels, ensuring each student is challenged appropriately.

8. Call and Response

Call and response is an interactive technique where the teacher says a phrase and students respond in unison. This method keeps students attentive and active in the learning process. For example, in a language class, the teacher might say a word in a foreign language, and students respond with the translation, reinforcing learning through repetition and engagement.

9. Sing It

Turning lessons into songs or incorporating music into teaching, as we have seen, can make learning more enjoyable and memorable. This method is particularly effective for memorization. In a math class, for instance, a teacher could create a catchy song to help students remember the order of operations.

10. Integrate Games

Games in education, whether digital or physical, can transform learning into an engaging, competitive experience. They encourage participation and can be used to reinforce concepts. An example is using a jeopardy-style game to review for a test, where students compete in teams to answer questions related to the subject matter, fostering both teamwork and knowledge retention.

11. Use Tongue Twisters

Tongue twisters are a fun and challenging way to grab students’ attention and improve their pronunciation and focus. For instance, starting a language class with a tongue twister related to the day’s lesson can energize students and sharpen their listening and speaking skills. It’s a playful approach that breaks the ice and increases alertness.

12. Try Unexpected Things

Introducing unexpected elements or activities in class can spark curiosity and hold students’ attention. This could be as simple as incorporating a surprising fact into a lesson or conducting a class outdoors. For example, teaching a biology lesson in the school garden can provide a refreshing change and make the learning experience more tangible and engaging.

13. Modify the Setting

Changing the physical layout or environment of the classroom can stimulate interest and engagement. Rearranging desks, decorating the room according to a theme, or even holding a class in a different location can make the learning experience fresh and exciting. For example, setting up a mock courtroom for a social studies lesson on government can bring the subject to life.

14. Bring Guests

Inviting guest speakers or experts can provide a new perspective and enliven the classroom experience. Guests can share real-world experiences, offer expertise, and make the learning more relevant. For example, inviting a local author to a literature class can offer insights into the writing process and inspire students.

15. Reward for Attention

Implementing a reward system for attentive and engaged behavior can motivate students. This could be in the form of points, privileges, or small prizes. For example, offering extra playtime or a homework pass to the most engaged group in a class project can incentivize students to participate actively.

16. Engage students Kinaesthetically

Kinaesthetic activities involve movement and physical activity, catering to learners who thrive on action. This can mean incorporating hands-on experiments, role-playing, or movement-based learning. For instance, in a geometry lesson, students could physically create shapes using ropes, helping them understand concepts through movement.

17. Use Timers

Timers can add a sense of urgency and excitement to tasks. They can be used to manage time for activities, games, or transitions between different parts of the lesson. For example, setting a timer for a quick brainstorming session can make the activity more dynamic and focus students’ efforts.

18. Ask Comprehension Check Questions

Periodically asking questions to check understanding keeps students on their toes and ensures active listening. These can be quick, informal questions related to the lesson’s content. In a history class, asking students to explain the significance of an event just discussed not only checks comprehension but also encourages them to articulate their understanding.

19. Incorporate Storytelling

Storytelling is a timeless technique that can captivate students’ attention. By weaving educational content into stories, or using narratives to introduce new topics, teachers can make lessons more engaging and relatable. For instance, explaining a scientific concept through a story about its discovery or application can help students visualize and better understand complex ideas.

20. Use Real-World Examples

Connecting classroom learning to real-world scenarios makes education more relevant and interesting. Discussing how theoretical knowledge is applied in everyday life or in various professions can stimulate curiosity. For example, in a math class, showing how algebra is used in architecture can provide a practical context and enhance engagement.

21. Create Mystery and Suspense

Building a sense of mystery or suspense in the classroom can be incredibly engaging. This could involve starting a lesson with a puzzling question, setting up a mystery for students to solve, or using a suspenseful narrative to unfold new topics. For instance, introducing a science lesson with a mysterious phenomenon that students have to explain using the day’s lesson can pique interest.

22. Utilize Student-Led Learning

Allowing students to take the lead in certain classroom activities empowers them and fosters a deeper level of engagement. This can involve students teaching a portion of the lesson, leading a discussion, or presenting their projects. For example, in a history class, students could be assigned to research and present different aspects of a historical event, encouraging active participation and peer learning.

23. Incorporate Role-Playing

Role-playing allows students to immerse themselves in a topic by acting out scenarios or historical events. This active participation can make learning more memorable and enjoyable. For example, in a social studies class, students could role-play as delegates from different countries in a model United Nations, helping them understand international relations and diplomacy through experience.

24. Conduct Debates

Organizing debates on relevant topics encourages critical thinking and active engagement. Students learn to research, formulate arguments, and consider different viewpoints. For example, a debate in a social studies class on a current political issue can deepen understanding and encourage students to engage with the material actively.

25. Implement Collaborative Projects

Collaborative projects involve students working together towards a common goal, fostering teamwork and engagement. This approach allows students to learn from each other and develop social skills. An example could be a group science project where each student contributes to building a model ecosystem, encouraging cooperation and hands-on learning.

26. Use Visual Aids

Visual aids like charts, graphs, and images can make abstract concepts more concrete and engaging. They appeal to visual learners and can help clarify complex information. In a geography class, using a large, detailed map to discuss geographical features and locations can make the lesson more interactive and understandable.

27. Encourage Peer Teaching

Peer teaching involves students teaching each other, reinforcing their own understanding while helping others. This method promotes active learning and builds communication skills. For instance, in a math class, students who grasp a concept quickly can be paired with those who need more help, facilitating mutual learning.

28. Integrate Field Trips

Field trips extend learning beyond the classroom, providing real-world experiences and a change of scenery that can reinvigorate student interest. Whether it’s a visit to a museum, a historical site, or a local business, these outings make learning more tangible and memorable. For example, a trip to a local science center can enhance a unit on physics by providing hands-on experiences with scientific principles.

29. Facilitate Reflection Sessions

Reflection sessions give students the opportunity to think about what they’ve learned, how they’ve learned it, and what it means to them. This introspective approach can deepen understanding and encourage personal connection to the material. For example, at the end of a unit, having a class discussion where students share their thoughts on the key learnings and how these might apply to their lives can be very impactful.

30. Use Puzzles and Brain Teasers

Incorporating puzzles and brain teasers into the classroom can sharpen critical thinking and problem-solving skills while capturing students’ attention. These activities can be used as warm-ups or to introduce new concepts in a fun and challenging way. For instance, starting a math class with a logic puzzle that indirectly introduces the day’s topic can engage students’ minds and set the tone for the lesson.

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Final thoughts

In conclusion, combating boredom and disengagement in the classroom requires a multifaceted approach, one that is both creative and responsive to the diverse needs of students. The attention grabbing strategies outlined in this post, ranging from using humor and multimedia to facilitating reflection sessions and brain teasers, are not just tools to keep students attentive; they are catalysts for a deeper, more meaningful engagement with learning.

References

• Berk, R. A. (2011). Research on PowerPoint: From basic features to multimedia. International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 7(1), 24-35
• Deci, E. L. (1992). The relation of interest to the motivation of behavior: A self-determination theory perspective. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 43-69). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Associates.
• Hidi, S., Renninger, K. A., & Krapp, A. (2004). Interest, a motivational variable that combines affective and cognitive functioning. In D. Y. Dai & R. J. Sternburg (Eds.), Motivation, emotion, and cognition: Integrative perspectives on intellectual functioning and development (pp. 89– 114). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Krapp, A., Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (1992). Interest, learning, and development. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 1-26). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Maroldo, G. K. (1986). Shyness, boredom, and grade point average among college students. Psychological Reports, 59(2), 395–398. DOI: 10.2466/pr0.1986.59.2.395
• Martin, R. A. (2007). The psychology of humor: An integrative approach. Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
• Mayer, R. E. (2003). The promise of multimedia learning: Using the same instructional design methods across different media. Learning and Instruction, 13(2), 125-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(02)00016-6
• Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Daniels, L. M., Stupnisky, R. H., & Perry, R. P. (2010). Boredom in achievement settings: Exploring control-value antecedents and performance outcomes of a neglected emotion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 531–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019243
• Renninger, K. A., Hidi, S., & Krapp, A. (Eds.) (1992). The role of interest in learning and development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Rosegard, E. & Wilson, J. (2013). Capturing students’ attention: An empirical study. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 13 (5), 1–20. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1017063.pdf
• Vogel-Walcutt, J. J., Fiorella, L., Carper, T., & Schatz, S. (2012). The definition, assessment, and mitigation of state boredom within educational settings: A comprehensive review. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 89-111.
• Wallace, J. C., Vodanovich, S. J., & Restino, B. M. (2003). Predicting cognitive failures from boredom proneness and daytime sleepiness scores: An investigation within military and undergraduate samples. Personality & Individual Differences, 34(4), 635–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00050-8
• Wanzer, M. B., Frymier, A. B., & Irwin, J. (2010). An explanation of the relationship between instruction humor and student learning: Instructional humor processing theory. Communication Education, 59(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520903367238
• Ziv, A. (1988). Teaching and learning with humor: Experiment and replication. Journal of Experimental Education, 57(1), 5-15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20151750

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